المراجع: Lvalue، Rvalue والمزالق

#include <iostream>
#include <string>

void append_greeting(std::string& s) {
    s += ", welcome!";  // modifies the caller's string
}

int main() {
    int x = 10;
    int& ref = x;      // ref is an alias for x
    ref = 20;
    std::cout << x << '\n';  // 20 — x was modified through ref

    // const reference can bind to a temporary (rvalue)
    const std::string& greeting = std::string("Hello");
    // The temporary's lifetime is extended to match greeting's scope
    std::cout << greeting << '\n';  // "Hello"

    // Non-const lvalue reference CANNOT bind to rvalue:
    // std::string& bad = std::string("oops");  // COMPILER ERROR

    std::string name = "Alice";
    append_greeting(name);
    std::cout << name << '\n';  // "Alice, welcome!"
}

#include <iostream>
#include <string>
#include <utility>  // std::move

void process(const std::string& s) {
    std::cout << "lvalue: " << s << '\n';
}

void process(std::string&& s) {
    std::cout << "rvalue: " << s << '\n';
    // s is an lvalue inside this function (it has a name!)
    // To move from s, you'd need std::move(s)
}

int main() {
    std::string a = "hello";
    process(a);               // calls lvalue overload
    process(std::string("world"));  // calls rvalue overload
    process(std::move(a));    // calls rvalue overload — a is now moved-from

    // IMPORTANT: a is in a valid but unspecified state
    // Only safe operations: assign to it, destroy it
    std::cout << "a after move: '" << a << "'\n";  // likely empty
}

#include <iostream>
#include <string>

std::string make_greeting() { return "Hello, World!"; }

const std::string& identity(const std::string& s) { return s; }

int main() {
    // SAFE: const ref directly bound to temporary
    const std::string& good = make_greeting();
    std::cout << good << '\n';  // OK — lifetime extended

    // DANGEROUS: lifetime extension does NOT propagate through functions
    const std::string& bad = identity(make_greeting());
    // bad is DANGLING — the temporary was destroyed after identity() returned
    // std::cout << bad << '\n';  // UNDEFINED BEHAVIOR

    // SAFE: just use a value
    std::string safe = make_greeting();  // move or copy-elision
    std::cout << safe << '\n';  // always safe
}