وراثت و روابط «هست-یک»

#include <iostream>
#include <string>

class Animal {
    std::string name_;
    int age_;

public:
    Animal(const std::string& name, int age)
        : name_{name}, age_{age}
    {
        std::cout << "Animal constructed: " << name_ << '\n';
    }

    virtual ~Animal() {
        std::cout << "Animal destroyed: " << name_ << '\n';
    }

    const std::string& name() const { return name_; }
    int age() const { return age_; }

    virtual void speak() const {
        std::cout << name_ << " makes a sound\n";
    }
};

class Dog : public Animal {  // public inheritance = is-a
    std::string breed_;

public:
    Dog(const std::string& name, int age, const std::string& breed)
        : Animal{name, age}  // base class constructor MUST be called first
        , breed_{breed}
    {
        std::cout << "Dog constructed: " << name() << '\n';
    }

    ~Dog() override {
        std::cout << "Dog destroyed: " << name() << '\n';
    }

    void speak() const override {
        std::cout << name() << " barks! (" << breed_ << ")\n";
    }
};

int main() {
    Dog rex{"Rex", 5, "German Shepherd"};
    rex.speak();  // Rex barks! (German Shepherd)
    // Destruction order: Dog destroyed, then Animal destroyed
    return 0;
}

#include <iostream>
#include <string>
#include <vector>
#include <memory>

class Shape {
public:
    virtual ~Shape() = default;
    virtual std::string type() const { return "Shape"; }
};

class Circle : public Shape {
    double radius_;
public:
    explicit Circle(double r) : radius_{r} {}
    std::string type() const override { return "Circle"; }
};

// BUG: passing by value slices the object!
void print_type_bad(Shape s) {
    std::cout << s.type() << '\n';  // always prints "Shape"!
}

// CORRECT: pass by reference to preserve polymorphism
void print_type_good(const Shape& s) {
    std::cout << s.type() << '\n';  // prints actual type
}

int main() {
    Circle c{5.0};

    print_type_bad(c);   // "Shape"  — SLICED!
    print_type_good(c);  // "Circle" — correct

    // Slicing also happens with containers of values:
    // std::vector<Shape> shapes;  // BAD: slicing on insert
    // Use pointers instead:
    std::vector<std::unique_ptr<Shape>> shapes;
    shapes.push_back(std::make_unique<Circle>(3.0));
    std::cout << shapes[0]->type() << '\n';  // "Circle"

    return 0;
}

#include <iostream>

// Diamond problem:
//       Device
//      /      \
//  Printer  Scanner
//      \      /
//     AllInOne

class Device {
protected:
    int id_;
public:
    Device(int id) : id_{id} {
        std::cout << "Device(" << id_ << ")\n";
    }
    virtual ~Device() = default;
};

// Virtual inheritance: only ONE copy of Device in AllInOne
class Printer : virtual public Device {
public:
    Printer(int id) : Device{id} {
        std::cout << "Printer\n";
    }
    void print_doc() { std::cout << "Printing on device " << id_ << '\n'; }
};

class Scanner : virtual public Device {
public:
    Scanner(int id) : Device{id} {
        std::cout << "Scanner\n";
    }
    void scan_doc() { std::cout << "Scanning on device " << id_ << '\n'; }
};

class AllInOne : public Printer, public Scanner {
public:
    // With virtual inheritance, the most-derived class
    // must initialize the virtual base directly
    AllInOne(int id) : Device{id}, Printer{id}, Scanner{id} {
        std::cout << "AllInOne\n";
    }
};

int main() {
    AllInOne aio{42};
    aio.print_doc();  // Printing on device 42
    aio.scan_doc();   // Scanning on device 42
    // Only ONE Device sub-object exists — no ambiguity
    return 0;
}